Motivating Culturally Diverse Workforce in an Organization Essay Example for Free

Motivating Culturally Diverse Workforce in an Organization Essay Culturally Diverse Workforce in an Organization Muhammad Junaid Murshed Southern New Hampshire University Abstract In this research paper, I will be discussing some of the methods that may be used to effectively motivate a culturally diverse workforce in an organization. At first, I will present a brief introduction to motivation, some of the well-known motivational theories and cultural diversity. Then, I will look into a few reasons for demotivation among the workforce of an organization, followed by some of the distinguished and effective motivational techniques that may be utilized to ascertain and/or deal with the same, citing real-life examples. Finally, I will conclude the paper with a brief summary of the key points discussed in the paper together-with a personal opinion about the effectiveness of the motivational methods discussed above. â€Å"Motivation is defined as the desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 97). As can be seen from the above statement motivation may be directly linked to performance. Although the direct correlation, motivation alone may not be sufficient to elicit the desired result. This is so, as, it (motivation) usually is influenced by factors such as an individual’s ability (p. 97) to perform the task and the resources available (p. 97) to him/her to aid in achieving the objective(s). â€Å"Culture refers to values, beliefs, and customs that exist in a society† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 40). â€Å"Diversity refers to the ways in which people are similar or different from each other† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 9). The world consists of various different cultures (p. 40) entailing a diverse (p. 29) population base i. e. in terms of age, gender, race, religion, physical abilities etc. Therefore, motivating (p. 97) individuals require understanding their descent first, as, it is most likely to influence the dominant need in their personality. With the passing of time many scientists, philosophers and psychologists have developed various theories to explain and enhance an individual’s motivational level. For the purpose of my research paper, I will be focusing on some of it, namely, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (p. 00), the ERG theory (p. 101), the two-factor theory, the acquired-needs theory (p. 102) and the self-determination theory to base my comparisons and/or conclusions to cultural diversity. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs â€Å"The theory is based on a simple premise: Human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked. There are some needs that are basic to all human beings, and in their absence nothing else matters. As we satisfy these basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher order needs† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 99). Physiological needs: â€Å"The need for air, food, and water† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 100). Safety needs: â€Å"The need to be free from danger and pain† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 100). Social needs: â€Å"The needs of bonding with other human beings, being loved, and forming lasting attachments with them† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 100). Esteem needs: â€Å"The desire to be respected by one’s peers, feel important, and be appreciated† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 100). Self-actualization need: â€Å"The need to become all you are capable of becoming† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 00). ERG theory â€Å"ERG theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer, is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer proposed that basic human needs maybe grouped under three categories, namely, existence, relatedness, and growth† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 101). Existence: â€Å"A need corresponding to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 101). Relatedness: â€Å"A need corresponding to Maslow’s social needs† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 101). Growth: â€Å"A need referring to Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 101). Two-factor theory â€Å"By asking individuals what satisfies them on the job and what dissatisfies them, Herzberg came to the conclusion that aspects of the work environment that satisfy employees are very different from aspects that dissatisfy them† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 101). Acquired-needs theory â€Å"According to this theory, individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences. These needs are the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power. All individuals possess a combination of these needs, and the dominant needs are thought to drive employee behavior† (Bauer and Erdogan, 2010, p. 102). Self-determination theory â€Å"Self-Determination Theory (SDT) represents a broad framework for the study of human motivation and personality. SDT articulates a meta-theory for framing motivational studies, a formal theory that defines intrinsic and varied extrinsic sources of motivation, and a description of the respective roles of intrinsic and types of extrinsic motivation in cognitive and social development and in individual differences†. Bibliography: 1. Bauer T. Erdogan B. (2010) Demographic Diversity. Organizational Behavior, 29. 2. Bauer T. Erdogan B. (2010) Cultural Diversity. Organizational Behavior, 40. 3. Bauer T. Erdogan B. (2010) Theories of Motivation. Organizational Behavior, 97. 4. Bauer T. Erdogan B. (2010) Theories of Motivation: Need-Based Theories of Motivation. Organizational Behavior, 100-102. 5. Self-Determination Theory: An Approach to Human Motivation Personality. Retrieved from http://www. selfdeterminationtheory. org/theory

China in the Classical Era Essay Example for Free

China in the Classical Era Essay The gender systems of the Classical era in China can almost be summed up with this phrase: â€Å"How sad it is to be a woman!† (Strayer) According to the Chinese traditions when a girl child is born the family is definitely not happy about the birth. The mothers of the girl child must do three things; â€Å"first she must make the child sleep under the bed this shows the baby that she is lowly and weak, second she must give the baby a potsherd or a piece of broken pot to play with to make the girl child realize that the only thing in life for her is housework, and thirdly the mother must make an offering to the ancestors when she announces the birth of the girl child. † (Strayer) Chinese women are considered less than men, less than the servants even. She must always humble herself to the man of the family, or her â€Å"master†; she is to do whatever the in-laws require her to do as well. The gender system of the Classical era in India is much like China. â€Å"In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent.† (Strayer) The female in India could never be on her own, her father rules her life as a child, her husband as a wife and if she has male children, she is less than her children if the husband ever dies. She must never be vain, show her face or her body, and woman of India is less than a person because of these rules. The gender system of the Classical era in Rome began very much the same for the females. †If each man of us, fellow citizens, had established that the right and authority of the husband should be held over the mother of his own family we should have less difficulty with women in general.† (Strayer) In Rome men were expected to rule. This may have come from the fact that in order for Roman men to reproduce they had to pillage other villages and kidnap and rape the captured women. Over that time the men obviously ruled the house, the city and the land. Women were considered imprudent, rude and considered unbridled if they conducted any kind of business without a male guardian present. In all three cultures the same patriarchy is evident. Women were to do nothing without the say so of the man. Whether it is her father, husband, brother or son, she was to do as she was told when she was told and not complain about it. In China the females did as told, even by the mother-in-law, she was humbled, regardless of the situation, the husband could do as wished as long as it didn’t bring shame to himself or his family. There really isn’t anyway for the Chinese woman to get away from the patriarchy of her family or her husband’s family. In India the only way that a woman could relieve herself from her husband’s patriarchy â€Å"was to become a Buddhist nun and entering a monastery where women were relatively less restricted and could exercise more authority than in ordinary life.† (Strayer) Even thought this relieved her of her families’ patriarchy she still didn’t have complete independence from male dominance. In Rome however, this is where the changes began for the Roman women. â€Å"When these speeches for and against the law had been made, a considerably larger crowd of women poured forth in public the next day; as a single body they besieged the doors, of the Brutus’s, who were vetoing their colleagues’ motion, and they didn’t not stop until the tribunes took back their veto†¦.† (Strayer) The women of Rome were sick of being treated as less the nothings, they began to go into the streets, talk to whomever they chose even other women’s husbands. They had decided as a group that it was time that they had some rights. The women were no longer going to sit in the houses and have absolutely no wealth, no status, and no rights. There were some men against this and some men that approved of it. In the end the women won, and was allowed a few rights. This was taken away twenty years later though. The cultures of the Classical era showed that women were less than men, they had no rights, they had no wealth and they would always be obedient. This was an act to humble the women, they were slaves. The males always dominated the women; only the Roman women as a group were able to stand up for themselves. The Chinese and the women of India did not. They were obedient. Works Cited: Strayer, Robert. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. Boston. New York, Bedford/ St. Martins 2011

Relationship between energy consumption and economic development

Relationship between energy consumption and economic development In the recent years China has rapidly developed into one of the largest economies in the World. China has shifted from the 108th to the 72nd rank on the World Development Index. The economic growth, industrialization and the urbanization have resulted to an annual average real GDP growth rate of 8 to 9 percent. The real income per capita has increased in this period, with the factor 10. This impressive growth however also implies higher environmental pressures despite new technological improvements of resource utilization being applied. The enormous growth of China results in substantially higher energy consumption. This goes hand in hand with higher CO2 emissions. The primary energy consumption in China has grown at an annual average rate of 6% between 1965 and 2008, with the first measurement of 183 oil equivalent million tonnes in 1965, and the latest measurement of 2003 MTN in 2008 (BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2009). The emission emitted by China in 2007 was 6.466 MTN and 6.897 MTN in 2008, indicating an increase of 6.4%. The global CO2 emission has increased from 31.007 MTN in 2007, to 31.578 MTN in 2008. This represents an increase of 1.6 %. The share of China in the global emission in 2008 according to this information is a stunning 21,8% (BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2009). The projection of the IPCC (2007) is that the CO2 emission from energy consumption between 2000 and 2030 are estimated to increase with 40 to even 110%. The CO2 emissions in China has exceeded the maximum amount stated in the Kyoto Protocol, which is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change focusing on preventing global warming. China has not been able to meet 10 of the 13 critical points in the current five-year plan, with targets for air and water pollution control (The World Bank, State Environmental Protection Administration, P.R. China, 2007). The overall environmental pollution costs in China are estimated to be about 5.8% of the GDP in China. For example it is estimated that in 2003 the acid rain which is mainly caused by fossil fuel emissions, has caused over 44 million dollars (30 billion Yuan  [1]  ) damage to crops, and an estimated 10,3 million dollars (7 billion Yuan) in damage to building materials in China (The World Bank, State Environmental Protection Administration, P. R. China, 2007) It is clear that economic growth contributes to a higher CO2 emission and global warming. Is this economic growth sustainable in the long term due to the impacts on air pollution? Is it worth the growth of China given the limited amount of resources available and the need for environmental conservation? Countries will have to find a balance between their consumption and economic growth. Various studies have analyzed the relationship between economic growth and the emission of CO2. For instance B. Friedl and M. Getzner (2003) found a significant relationship during the period of 1960 and 1999, with a structural break in the seventies due to the oil price shock. J. B. Ang (2007) found a dynamic relationship between pollutant emissions, energy consumption and economic development. They point out that the more energy is used in the economy, the more CO2 emissions are released, which in its turn has a quadratic relationship with the output in the long run. This indicates that output growth is a reactor for CO2 emissions and energy consumption. This relationship between output and the pollution level has been widely documented as the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC). The EKC hypothesis indicates that the relationship between economic development and the environment is shown as an inverted U-curve, whereas environmental damage first increases with income and over time will stabilize, and eventually declines. China is one of the main driving forces of global warming, with the highest emission value and the highest economic growth rate. Since energy consumption has a direct impact on the level of environmental pollution, China is an interesting country to examine. Amidst the animated debate of global warming and sustainability, the energy consumption will be related as an input factor for economic activity along with the emission of CO2 in China. Other influences which are included are price indices, total gross fixed capital, population and the technological developments. I will make use of the measurements published by the following databases excluding the Chinese Statistical Yearbooks due to incoherent results with these databases; the BP Statistical Review of World Energy, the World Development Indicators database, The Conference Board Total Economy database and the World Intellectual Property Organization database. The outcome of the research could contribute to the debate of the mitigation of global warming and should imply that China has to speed up the technological developments to create or implement energy efficient technologies to reduce the CO2 emissions in line with the targets of the Kyoto Protocol. This implies that policies should be reformulated to stimulate the use of alternative resources and technological developments. The nexus of energy consumption economic development CO2 emission, with price indices, total gross fixed capital, technological development and population. Price indices and fluctuations Investment in Pollution Treatment and RD Technological development Air pollution: CO2 Emission Economic Development: GDP TGFC Consumption Total Energy Consumption: Oil / Gas Coal / Nuclear / Hydro-electricity Households Population Literature review/Background There are two strands of literature relevant in the nexus of energy consumption à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ economic development à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ CO2 emission. The first strand focuses upon the relation between energy consumption and economic development. More energy consumption leads to higher economic development through the enhancement of productivity. The second strand focuses upon the relation between economic growth and CO2 emission. The latter strand represents the interrelation between energy consumption and the increase of CO2, which is well known and obvious. Various studies indicate that more energy use results in more CO2 emission (J.Ang, 2007). Thus any movement of energy use will positively react to the emission level. 2.1 Strand 1 Energy consumption and economic development  [2]   This first strand divides the causality between energy consumption and economic growth in three possibilities. Firstly the causality that runs from energy consumption to economic growth. Secondly the causality that runs from economic growth to energy consumption. Thirdly bidirectional causality which implies there is an effect, or no effect in either direction between energy consumption and economic growth. 2.1.1 Unidirectional from energy consumption to economic growth The traditional neo-classical model based upon economic growth uses the energy inputs as an intermediate. The factor inputs land, labor and capital are used as basic factors, in order to neutralize the function of energy in production. Energy is an intermediate function; however it is the consumption of energy that causes economic growth. Energy remains an important aspect in the determination of income. National economies therefore depend upon the use of energy and will be affected by changes in energy consumption. Therefore the elasticity is expected to be high between energy consumption and economic growth, since it is an important aspect. Jia-Hai Yuan et al (2008) tests the causality between output growth and energy use in China at both aggregated total energy and disaggregated levels as coal, oil and electricity consumption and find that there exists Granger causality between the electricity and oil consumption to GDP. However they do not find Granger causality from coal and the total energy consumption of these three energy inputs to GDP. Soytas and Sari (2007) found the same Granger causality from electricity consumption to GDP in Turkey. Previous research by Soytas and Sari (2003) examining the G-7 countries, indicated an unidirectional relationship running from energy consumption to GDP in Turkey, France, Germany and Japan covering the period 1950-1992. Stern (1993) also found a Granger causality from total energy to GDP, employing a four-variable model with capital, labor, energy consumption and GDP. A.E. Akinlo (2006) results indicate that energy consumption is co-integrated with economic growth within seven out of eleven African countries, using an autoregressive distributed lag bound test (ARDL). The study also implies that there exists a significant long run effect on economic growth in four African countries. Fatai et al. (2004) showed that energy consumption has a significant positive effect on economic growth in Indonesia and India. C. Lee and C. Chang (2007) report a nonlinear relationship between energy consumption and an economic growth in Taiwan for the period 1955-2003, as inverse U-shape. They state from their previous research that in the long run energy unanimously acts as an engine of economic growth, and that energy conservation may harm economic growth. J. Ang (2007) found a unidirectional causality from the increase of energy and the output growth in the short run. The existence of unidirectional causality has some policy implications; it could suggest that a country is dependent upon the inputs of energy to establish economic growth. The restriction of energy may directly lead to lower economic growth or even a restrain and could result in a fall in employment or equivalently an increase in unemployment rate (N. M. Odhiambo 2009, A.E. Akinlo, 2008). It is difficult for governments to implement energy conservation policies as a part of a green future, and face the trade-off between energy consumption and growth. Environmental conservation will constantly be a part of every economic development process. Policies to conserve energy could be quotas, taxes, subsidies or the promotion of efficient use of technology (C. Lee, C. Chang, 2007) 2.1.2 Unidirectional from economic growth to energy consumption On the other hand I expect the increase in GDP will influence the energy consumption in various ways, firstly through an increased energy-intensity (energy consumption per unit of GDP) in households due to more spendable income. Also the private consumption of fuels in households and private car use seem to have a significant effect on the emission level (C.Lee and C. Chang, 2007). Population can thus be an indicator for the amount of energy consumption, whereas air pollution levels could be directly associated with population. The article of Lee and Chang (2007) discusses that the energy consumption in Taiwan has risen sharply due to rapid economic growth and higher living standards. Secondly increases in income will increase activities as investment, which is an important input factor for production processes. If the economy grows, this will result to an increased demand for energy will increase. Pioneering in this strand is the article of Kraft and Kraft dated in 1978. It is one of the first articles to examine the phenomenon. They found a unidirectional causality running from output to energy consumption for the United States during the period 1947à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬1974. Jia-Hai Yuan et al (2008) is consistent with this result and found Granger causality in the short run from GDP to total energy consumption, coal and oil consumption. However there does exist causality from GDP to electricity consumption. Soytas and Sari (2003) found in their panel research a unidirectional relationship from economic growth to energy consumption for Italy (1950-1992) and Korea (1953-1991). Total gross fixed capital can be an indicator for the amount of energy consumption. This form of unidirectional causality from GDP to energy consumption can imply that a country is not solely dependent upon the energy consumption or energy input, leading to economic growth. Therefore policies can be implemented to conserve energy sources with no adverse or small effects on the economic growth (N. M., Odhiambo, 2009, A.E., Akinlo, 2008) 2.1.3 Bidirectional between energy consumption and economic growth The third view implies that there exists a bidirectional relationship within the nexus of energy consumption and economic growth. N. M. Odhiambo (2009) and A.E. Akinlo (2008) found this bidirectional causality. Soytas and Sari (2003) found this relationship for Argentina (1950-1990) within the G-7 countries. A.E. Akinlo (2008) analyzed three African countries in the short and long run show that this relationship holds for developed countries, while developing countries endure economic growth through more energy consumption only in the short run. C. Lee and C. Chang (2007) empirical findings suggest that energy consumption and economic growth are positively interrelated under a certain threshold. They stress the implications for future economic growth to the extent of resource scarcity. The finding of causality in both directions implies that energy conservation policies will have an impact on economic growth. The other bidirectional causality is known as the neutrality hypothesis, which implies that energy conservation policies do not affect economic growth. The insignificant impact in Taiwan beyond the mentioned threshold indicates that conservation policy is effective. The conservation policy could be implemented through energy taxes, new subsidies, quantity restriction and promoting efficient usage of energy such as innovation. However such environmental protection policies will lead to high costs and avoidance of rules. Eventually this will results in control expenditures. 2.2 Economic growth and CO2 emission The more energy consumed the more CO2 emission will follow up to a level of total clean technology. The direct relationship between energy consumption and the amount of CO2 emission is logical and empirically proven in several articles. The relationship between economic growth and CO2 emission is a more interesting one. Well known in the literature is the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis. Studies show that the EKC describes the relation between income and several local pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and water pollutants. This relationship is an inverted U-curve, whereas environmental damage will first increases with income and over time will stabilize to its maximum. The curve will eventually decline, creating the inverted U-shape. It appears that economic growth can solely lead to environmental degradation (Soytasa Saria 2007). This implies that at low-income levels we might see a positive relation between national income and pollution, and at high levels of income we can trace a negative relation between the two variables (Liu, X. 2005). This non-linear relationship between environmental pollution and income levels can be explained by three factors: scale, composition, and technique effects. The scale effect refers to the increase in pollution along with the size of the economy. The composition effect refers to the change in the production structure and reallocation of resources, from an agriculture based economy to an industry and service based economy. The technique effect refers to the used techniques of production which may reduce the amount of pollutant emissions. (J. Ang, 2007) B. Friedl and M. Getzner (2003) analyzed the CO2 emissions in a small open economy (Austria) and found a cubic relationship between GDP and CO2 emissions in their research for the period of 1960 and 1999, meaning that the relationship has two inflection points, and change direction twice. They concluded that the Austrian emission and GDP are cointegrated and run parallel. J. Ang 2007 shows that there is a quadratic relation between CO2 emissions and output in the long run (parabola), in France for the period of 1960 to 2000. The results suggest that output growth causes CO2 emissions and energy consumption in the long run. A. Jalil, S.F. Mahmud 2009 analyzed the EKC hypothesis for China in the period 1971à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬2005 with an ADRL framework. From their analysis there appears to be causality from economic growth to CO2 emissions, and a significant effect of energy consumption on the CO2 level. 2.3 Other factors affecting energy consumption and economic growth Another import factor is the research activity or investments in RD to reduce the amount of emissions. The common believe is that improvement in productivity and research activity will lead to a reduced amount of emission. An example is the Investment in technical upgrades and transformation in China in the electricity sector which increased sufficiently in 1990 and accelerated further since 1996. This should be one of the most important economic impulses driving energy efficiency improvements (L. Wu et al.2006). They also point out that the rising prices of energy since 1993 have provided strong economic incentives for the industry to decouple energy use from economic growth. This has driven the incentive to technically innovate. This refers to an economy that is able to sustain economic growth, without also experiencing a worsening of environmental conditions. However contra dictionary is the case of Taiwan, which has substantial changes in the structure of production in the economic sectors and enormous increases in development. This has led to a rapid increase in energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. Cole et al. (2008) show that productivity improvements and research activity will reduce the amount of emission. The article of J.Ang 2009 indicates that there exists a declining trend in CO2 emissions with the increase in research activity in China. From the data covering 1953 to 1999, it becomes clear that more innovation and RD activity will lead to beneficial influences in decreasing CO2 emissions. Policies created to decrease emission levels will lead to more research activity which will contribute directly through improved production techniques. This will decrease emissions and it will indirectly enable China to absorb green technology more efficiently from other countries. It is also likely that more efficient use of energy may require a higher level of economic development. That is, better economic performance may be a catalyst for energy efficiency, which makes energy consumption and economic development jointly determined (J. Ang 2007) This is based on the premises that different countries are in different stages of development. There are different effects on the developing process and impacts on the energy and growth relation. Two countries with similar levels of technology and factor endowments may have significantly different industrial structures as a result of past investment decisions. Their aggregate capital levels may be similar, but differences in the composition of capital may lead to differences in the opportunity cost of reducing emissions. A regression of only emissions on income may lead to a misspecification and bias, without controlling for the industrial structure. Therefore the total gross capital formation is important to include (Liu, X. 2005) Besides innovation and total gross capital formation, reforms of energy pricing systems in China since 1993 led to a dramatic rise in fuel prices and consequently to an economic decreased condition in the electricity generation sector, petroleum refinery sector and coal mining sector. B. Friedl and M. Getzner (2003) directly relate this structural break in energy consumption as a result, to a lower CO2 emission in Austria after the oil price shock. The recent price hikes stresses the importance of energy policies for conservation (R. Mahadeva, 2006). Theoretically if the fuel price increases, it will stimulate energy conservation behavior if the demand is relatively elastic. Practically the effect of rising prices can be seen by the oil price shock from 1973, which did not fail to leave its mark on CO2 emissions. Economic growth in this period slowed down, and due to changes in energy policies, such as rationalizing private consumption of fuels by restricting private car use, CO2 emissions dropped to about 57 million MTNE in 1975.

Womens Literacy During the Middle Ages :: European History

During the Middle Ages, women were considered to be inferior to men and were not formally educated. It was common for women to be unable to read and write in their own language. Even though some were fortunate enough to be taught how to read, some were still unable to write. Women were not usually taught how to read Latin, the language of male scholars and people of the Church, who also happened to be male. In the later Middle Ages, even most nuns were not able to learn Latin. Partially literate women became increasingly common in the later Middle Ages; but very few women were given the opportunity to learn to read and write. One of the most famous women readers , the Virgin Mary was often portrayed in medieval paintings and illuminations depicting the Annunciation, for example. Illustrations would show Mary before or beside an open Bible, implying that she was able to read. Pictures of the Annunciation were common, and people would most likely come across pictures of Mary reading in their Bibles or payer books. Mary was not the only woman to be portrayed with an open book beside her. For example, a painting by Jean Bourdichon shows Anne of Brittany kneeling before an open book. Another painting by Robert Campin and his assistants shows a woman reading in a painting of the Madonna and child with saints. In the schools of the Middle Ages, reading and writing were taught separately Some aristocratic women were taught to read but might not be able to write themselves. Some of the most famous women during the Middle Ages were able to read. One of the greatest queens ever to rule England was Eleanor of Aquitaine who could read but not write. She compensated for that by have people called scribes to write for her. During her reigns as the Queen of England and France, Eleanor was very concerned about the literacy of people living in Aquitaine . The famous poet Marie de France may have performed or presented her stories to the court of Eleanor and her second husband, Henry II. Marie wrote fables and lais for a living, and her stories became so popular during the Middle Ages that her works entertained both the French and English courts and were translated into many different languages. Throughout the Middle Ages, nuns were taught to read portions of the Bible, and many of them were able to write as well.

Analysis of Gabriel Garcias One Hundred Years of Solitude Essay

Analysis of Gabriel Garcia's One Hundred Years of Solitude Historical roots of Macondo and the Buendia family. One Hundred Years of Solitude is about on imagined mythical town which is named as Macondo. Its foundation, rise, development and death throughout the history of its founders; Buendia family is narrated. It is the evolution and eventual decadence of a small Latin American town and its inhabitants. The novel is dominated by Colombian settings and the Buendia family is a Colombian family of those times that the story takes places. At that point, the reader may question the position of the book. Is the story of the fictional town Macondo and Buendia family simply about the failure of that particular town and family or is there something beyond. Did Gabriel Garcia Marquez, the author of One Hundred Years of Solitude, spend three years to write this book that then became his master piece, only because he wanted to talk about an imagined town, an imagined family and their failure. Or, is the book a metaphor for Latin America's, specifically Colombia's and her peoples history. Did Marquez w rite this book to paste it on history as an example of a history not to be repeated again, to paste it as a warning. As the second part of this assay, I want to focus on gypsies since they construct an other culture other than the inhabitants of Macondo. To find out the importance of this distinct, nomadic gypsy culture will enable the reader to make a comparison between gypsies and their contact with civilization, and Buendia family and their failure within their solitude. In other words, by comparing gypsies and Buendias, the reader will be able to get some important clues about Buendias' failure. Gabriel Garcia Marquez is the Nobel Prize wining author of "One Hundred Years of Solitude" of 1982. The ambiguity, aesthetic genius and the usage of the technique, 'magical realism' that is the connection between the fantasy and reality brought that success. The reader does not have to think too hard to enjoy the book. This is the beauty of Third World writing, that it deals with both specific and international issues. Third World and multi-cultural writers are describing, reproducing and addressing a heterogeneous and international (and this is often what passes for post-colonial) readership. Third world is a useful term which makes it possible to talk about this... .... Buendias overlooked the beauty of the heterogeneous thinking and behaving and stacked with the useless homogenous way of living that ended their aimless existence. Their aimless living left its place to a tabula rasa, a new fresh start at the end of the novel. Famous Colombian writer, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, by creating this new page, by eliminating the Buendia family, is preparing a new chance for other peoples, in fact for Latin Americans. His book is now pasted on history with the help literature and the intended readers may look at it and learn a lot from it. The story of Macondo and Buendias is not simply a story of a fictional town and its inhabitants. Marquez uses Aureliano's method, pasting names on objects to remember their names and functions. By pasting this book as a warning, Marquez names the true history of Colombia. He retells the civil war; the War of One Thousand Days and the banana massacre that is denied by the Colombian Government and erased from history boo ks. Marquez pasted his book to show some overlooked parts of Colombia's history and the dangers of circularity and repetitions and he wants his book to be a guide, a warning at least for a better future.

Understanding Counter Reformation Essay -- Catholic Church Political R

In order to understand the Counter Reformation one must consider the political factors and motivators behind them as well as the belief factors when examining clashes with the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church during 16th century experienced a reformation that was both politically and belief driven. The Catholic Reformation also known as the Counter Reformation allowed the church to clearly define its position, eliminate unchristian practices and examine its role in world. This paper will address the political motivators of the Counter Reformation, the unchristian practices that fueled corruption and the clearly defined religious concerns of reformers. It will establish that the use of patronage and nepotism ultimately undermined the spiritual piety of the church. Also, the movements that brought spirituality back to the church will be addressed along with those movements that led to separation from church. In detailing the events and character of this era and analyzing the outcomes of reform it will be concluded that the Counter Reformation was the beginning of a stronger church and an end to an era that quite possibly could have led to the dissolution of the Catholic Church. One must understand the political make up of the Catholic Church during this period prior to addressing the reforms to the church. The church was far more than a religious institution. The Catholic Church was supreme in Europe. The power of the pope was total and this was supplemented by the power the Holy Roman Emperor had as temporal defender of the Catholic Church. Even though the church had no determinate territory it was a state. It had a monarch as a pope, it princes in prelates and its subjects in Western Christendom. It had legislative assemblies in ecumenical councils, a constitution in cannon law, and fiscal agency in the Curia. It went to war, negotiated treaties and collected taxies. The church was the Holy Roman Empire with a stronghold throughout Europe. But this would quickly change.(www.History) At the time of the reformation there was great concern that the Old Church with all its history and tradition was in trouble. This concern came from both within the church and outside the church. Protestant and Catholic reformers alike were troubled by the corruption in the church and its inner workings. Reformers saw that the Christian faith had in many ways been taken... ...ounter-Reformation after the Council of Trent a large shift in power occurred in Italy. The Pope who was once a large political figure in Italy had lost his political power but gained Religious Power. Patrons, who had dispersed kin as clergy members all over Italy, also lost power. Their power of placement of clergy was no longer allowed and bishops were given the choice of where clergy members should be located. The Political power that had once belonged to both the Pope and the Patrons had now been given to the sovereigns of the separated nations, who full well knew that in the Council of Trent their power would grow. The Council of was a turning-point in the Catholic Church. There was a certainty in practices and beliefs, the church’s foundation had been strengthened and there was a base to grow. Catholicism had reestablished itself and it was a force to be dealt with. By the end of the sixteenth century the Catholic Church was still making some serious reforms. This reform movement which extended into the seventeenth century raised moral and educational standards of the clergy. All inspired by the church with a new zeal and morale. One must conclude that reform was needed. Understanding Counter Reformation Essay -- Catholic Church Political R In order to understand the Counter Reformation one must consider the political factors and motivators behind them as well as the belief factors when examining clashes with the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church during 16th century experienced a reformation that was both politically and belief driven. The Catholic Reformation also known as the Counter Reformation allowed the church to clearly define its position, eliminate unchristian practices and examine its role in world. This paper will address the political motivators of the Counter Reformation, the unchristian practices that fueled corruption and the clearly defined religious concerns of reformers. It will establish that the use of patronage and nepotism ultimately undermined the spiritual piety of the church. Also, the movements that brought spirituality back to the church will be addressed along with those movements that led to separation from church. In detailing the events and character of this era and analyzing the outcomes of reform it will be concluded that the Counter Reformation was the beginning of a stronger church and an end to an era that quite possibly could have led to the dissolution of the Catholic Church. One must understand the political make up of the Catholic Church during this period prior to addressing the reforms to the church. The church was far more than a religious institution. The Catholic Church was supreme in Europe. The power of the pope was total and this was supplemented by the power the Holy Roman Emperor had as temporal defender of the Catholic Church. Even though the church had no determinate territory it was a state. It had a monarch as a pope, it princes in prelates and its subjects in Western Christendom. It had legislative assemblies in ecumenical councils, a constitution in cannon law, and fiscal agency in the Curia. It went to war, negotiated treaties and collected taxies. The church was the Holy Roman Empire with a stronghold throughout Europe. But this would quickly change.(www.History) At the time of the reformation there was great concern that the Old Church with all its history and tradition was in trouble. This concern came from both within the church and outside the church. Protestant and Catholic reformers alike were troubled by the corruption in the church and its inner workings. Reformers saw that the Christian faith had in many ways been taken... ...ounter-Reformation after the Council of Trent a large shift in power occurred in Italy. The Pope who was once a large political figure in Italy had lost his political power but gained Religious Power. Patrons, who had dispersed kin as clergy members all over Italy, also lost power. Their power of placement of clergy was no longer allowed and bishops were given the choice of where clergy members should be located. The Political power that had once belonged to both the Pope and the Patrons had now been given to the sovereigns of the separated nations, who full well knew that in the Council of Trent their power would grow. The Council of was a turning-point in the Catholic Church. There was a certainty in practices and beliefs, the church’s foundation had been strengthened and there was a base to grow. Catholicism had reestablished itself and it was a force to be dealt with. By the end of the sixteenth century the Catholic Church was still making some serious reforms. This reform movement which extended into the seventeenth century raised moral and educational standards of the clergy. All inspired by the church with a new zeal and morale. One must conclude that reform was needed.

Contemporary Economic Systems of the World Essay

Humans need supply of food and other necessities in order to survive and prevail. The way through which humans manage and arrange their provisions is called the economic system. The oldest of all these systems is the barter system in which goods are exchanged without any proper currency involved. The three major contemporary economic systems are the market economy system, centrally planned economic system and mixed economic system. The market economy system is a system where society or government has a lesser role in deciding about the way the system should be run or goods to be produced. The process and the forces involved in the market are the key factors in determining and shaping the way of the system. Nearly all the Capitalist economies like the United States, United Kingdom, France and Japan are the examples of market economic system. In the market economic system the individuals and the private sector has the right to own, run and expand business and property. In planned economic system the society and government has the major role to decide about the trends and way the system should behave and get going. These systems focus on equal distribution of wealth and social justice. Most socialist and communist systems are based on this type of economic system. The former U. S. S. R was the key socialist economic country, while contemporary example socialist economies is Cuba. Mixed Economic Systems are those systems, which were basically centrally planned economic systems, but they have compromised on some issues like private business and property ownership and have adopted some aspects of the market economy. Chinese economic system is the major example of mixed economy because even in China there are some regions where there is a complete market economic system like Hong Kong. While the country’s whole socialist economy has been altered to make it more compatible with the western market economies.